The Iceberg Model of David McClelland
The Iceberg Model of David McClelland: Understanding Visible and Invisible Aspects of Behavior
David McClelland’s Iceberg Model distinguishes between what is visible (behavior, competencies) and what is invisible (the underlying current: beliefs, values). Alongside this model, McClelland developed a motivation theory that emphasizes the importance of understanding human drives. Without grasping what motivates you, sustainable behavioral change cannot be achieved.
Explore how you can use the Iceberg Model for reflection, awareness, and change with corresponding coaching questions at each level!
- The Motivation Theory of David McClelland
- The Four Needs According to David McClelland
- The Iceberg Model of McClelland
The Motivation Theory of David McClelland
David McClelland is an American psychologist, best known for his work on motivation theory and the iceberg model for behavioral change. In his theories, he explores various (innate) human drives.
McClelland builds on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which organizes basic human needs in a hierarchical manner.
Through his research, McClelland identified four new needs: achievement, influence, connection, and avoidance. The hierarchy of these needs varies per individual, with one dominant drive for each person. Finally, McClelland emphasizes the importance of self-knowledge in his studies, so that people can use their own psychology to their advantage.
Each need has both strengths and pitfalls. By understanding your own drives or needs, you know what to watch out for and how it can serve you. In short, this helps you stay motivated throughout the process of behavioral change.
The Four Needs According to David McClelland
1. Need for Achievement
The need for achievement stems from the desire for feedback, which can come in the form of recognition, progress, or mastery. Individuals with this need set ambitious goals and enjoy unleashing their creativity to achieve them. They have a strong sense of responsibility and a need for challenge.
2. Need for Influence
People place significant importance on their reputation, with status being one form of it. The reason is simple: we like to feel important, especially in certain contexts. For many professionals, the goal is to be seen as an authority in their field of expertise. This position as a "thought leader" allows them to guide and influence others.
3. Need for Connection
Everyone likes to feel included, as humans are social creatures. We enjoy being part of a larger community and sometimes conform our behavior to better fit in with a group. In his motivation theory, McClelland notes that this group excels in partnerships and collaboration.
4. Need for Avoidance
Later, avoidance behavior was added to the motivation theory, representing the flight response in action. This involves taking conscious action to avoid certain situations, such as conflicts. Research even shows that the urge to avoid something can be a stronger motivator for many people than the prospect of a reward! However, too much avoidance can be counterproductive and lead to stress.
The Iceberg Model of McClelland
David McClelland’s Iceberg Model links behavior to unconscious beliefs and drives, helping to achieve behavioral change on a deeper level.
The Iceberg Model is a metaphor. Just like an iceberg, we see the tip representing individuals, teams, and organizations, but not what lies beneath the surface. However, the largest part of the iceberg is invisible.
In other words, when we think about behavioral change, we often consider making a decision and changing habits through sheer discipline and willpower. However, behind this behavior lies a series of invisible and unconscious beliefs, motivations, and values that lead to it. To achieve sustainable change, we need to look at the underlying current.
Using McClelland’s Iceberg Model as a reflection tool encourages awareness throughout the process of behavioral change. This not only increases the likelihood of success but also promotes a sustainable shift in the long term.
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Visible – Above the Waterline
What do you do? - Action
Above the waterline lies everything that is visible or observable. This includes all forms of (inter)action, such as behavior, skills, and knowledge of an individual. In organizations, this also applies to job descriptions, organizational structure, and work procedures as visible elements.
Behavior
- What do you do now? Why do you do it?
- What are the consequences of this behavior? What are the desired and undesired outcomes?
- What behavior unconsciously and unintentionally maintains your current reality?
- What have you already tried? How did it go?
Competencies
- What can you already do?
- What are your strengths?
- What areas still need improvement?
- What can you not do yet?
- Do you have relevant experiences?
Knowledge
- What do you already know?
- Do you know enough to take action?
- What do you not know yet?
- Where can you potentially gain more knowledge?
Solving problems at the visible layer usually involves situational change. In other words, you adjust something in the environment or behavior to achieve a different result. This is sometimes referred to as single loop learning.
Although you can make many changes at the top layer, it provides only a limited view. In other words, behavior or the top layer is driven by (unconscious) beliefs, motives, and values in the underlying current.
Invisible – The Underlying Current
The underlying current fuels the visible layer and can be either limiting or empowering. Self-sabotaging behavior often stems from underlying beliefs. In organizations, elements such as unspoken rules, habits, and rituals are part of this underlying current.
Although they officially do not form part of the organizational culture, the ethos is often still carried by the people in the company. This is why both culture and behavioral change require a shift in thinking and being.
What Do You Think? - Beliefs
The first layer below the waterline is what you think. In other words, what do you believe in, what do you find important, and where do these beliefs come from? How we think not only determines our behavior but also shapes our self-image.
Beliefs
- What do you believe in? Where does this come from?
- Why do you think this way?
- How do these beliefs support your goals?
- What benefit could you gain by viewing things differently?
- Are these beliefs based on reality or your perception?
Norms and Values
- What behaviors do you find appropriate or inappropriate?
- In what situations have you felt disappointed or frustrated? Why?
- What are your ideals? How would you like to see change?
- For which values would you continue to fight? What would you lose if you did not?
- How important are these values to you?
- Are there things that are blocking you?
Self-Image
- What do you think of yourself?
- How do you think others perceive you?
- What doubts or fears do you have?
- Are there unmet needs?
- How is this holding you back?
In the second layer of the iceberg model, behavioral change is driven by a new way of thinking. This can involve replacing limiting beliefs with empowering ones or changing your perception of yourself and the world. This process is known as double-loop learning.
What Do You Want? – Feelings
Finally, the bottom layer of McClelland’s iceberg model revolves around what you want and feel. In other words, why do you do what you do? What drives you? These attitudes (often unconsciously) shape our personality and identity.
Drives and Motives
- Where do you get your energy from? What activities do you enjoy? What brings you joy?
- What do you truly want to do?
- What things are important to you in your life, work, family, etc.?
- What do you absolutely not want to do? Why not?
- What are you striving for? What is your passion? What interests you? What do you dream about?
- If X didn’t matter, what would you do?
This layer focuses on understanding your core drives and emotional needs, helping to align your actions with your deeper motivations and desires.
Personality
- Is your behavior an automatic response?
- Does this behavior pattern occur frequently?
- What do you stand for? How would you describe yourself?
- What is important for you to think about? How do you view... ? What is your opinion on... ?
- Which people do you look up to? What qualities do you admire in others?
- What do you dislike?
- What have you inherited from your parents? How are you different?
- What moments have been significant in your life?
In the deepest layer of David McClelland’s iceberg model, behavioral change occurs at the level of identity. The deeper you go into the iceberg, the more complex the behavioral change becomes. It requires time and incremental action to embed a new identity. Often, this change is a response to a series of events in organizations or personal experiences.
It starts with awareness and reflection. Then, a shift in behavior inspires a change in thinking and identity. This process is sometimes referred to as triple-loop learning.
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